Tripod
The most important
piece of equipment besides the camera is a tripod. A tripod alone can
make the difference between an amateur home video and one of semi-professional
quality. A tripod is crucial for reducing the amount of shaking and
other unnecessary movement of the camera. This can be critical for encoding
any video to be delivered over the web. A tripod should provide smooth
panning (side to side motion) and tilting (up and down motion) (Click
and Go Video, 2002).
Microphones
Although cameras come with a built-in microphones, it would be wise
to invest in an additional one. They are relatively inexpensive and
can impact the quality of the film. Remember that only half of what
is recorded is video; the rest is audio and should be considered just
as important. While video can be tweaked for brightness and contrast,
it is nearly impossible to improve bad audio. In fact, good audio can
often make up for the shortcomings of bad video (Kelsey & Feeley,
2000).
Shotgun microphones can attach directly to your camera or to an arm that is carried separately. They are unidirectional, meaning they only collect sound coming from the direction they are pointed. Some shotgun microphones offer a zoom feature so that when the camera zooms in, the microphone also zooms into the same location. Shotgun mikes are useful for filming large group with multiple subjects, for interviewing in a controlled environment, or for controlling background noise.
A wireless microphone should be used to record interviews, guest speakers, or any situation involving a moving subject. Microphones can either be handheld, as those used by field reporters for news shows, or lavalieres which clip onto clothing. Most wireless microphones have a range of about 50 yards and have multiple channels to avoid interference from other sources. When using wireless microphones, be sure to use fresh batteries.
For all microphones it is essential that the camera operator wear earphones connected to the camera to monitor the sound. Otherwise, there is no way of knowing if the background noise is overpowering, a connection comes loose, or batteries have died until it is much too late.
Lights
There are several low cost alternatives to high-end lighting. The general rule is soft light is better than hard light. Avoid complex shadows, hotspots, and large contrast.
The easiest way to achieve soft light is to reflect a bright light or even sunlight off a diffuser. This can be a light umbrella, wall, or even a large piece of white poster board. Poster board or some other reflector can be used to redirect a strong overhead light such as room lighting or the sun at a subject so there are fewer strong shadows. Gooseneck lamps also work well. More tips on lighting will be provided in the Shooting Video section.
Planning and Pre-Production
All the equipment in the world cannot produce quality video
without adequate planning. Some basic questions to consider when planning
include: (1) Why do you want to use video? (2) Who is the target audience?
(3) What are your objectives? That is, what do you want the audience
to learn? (4) What are the best instructional methods to get these objectives
across? (5) What are your budget and time constraints? (6) What equipment
do you require? (Deal, 2003; Click and Go Video, 2002 ). A good resource
for addressing these questions is the Click and Go Video (2002)
Decision Tool ( www.clickandgovideo.ac.uk
). This tool addresses pedagogical focus (image, interaction, or
integration) as well as technical and implementation issues to help
develop the most appropriate plan.
Next to consider is the script.
A script answers the basic question, “What do you want to say?” This
will help clarify the details of the video such as who is involved,
where will you shoot, what props will you need, and how long will it
take? Creating a script is also useful to accompany any video as a text
alternative (Click and Go Video, 2002).
After a script it is important to create a storyboard or a list of shots, or video sequences. A storyboard addresses the question, “What do you want to show?” For a good idea of what a storyboard looks like, open any comic book. Each frame can be considered a shot where the action, dialogue, and characters are drawn in the order and location they are to appear. A detailed storyboard will help the filming process go smoothly, particularly if there are several people involved.
Next, plan the most efficient order for shooting. This may not necessarily be chronological or in the order of the final tape. Schedule plenty of time for shooting, at least twice as much as you think you will need. It is important not to feel rushed. Make arrangements well ahead of time with actors, crew, and interviewees (A. Foley, public presentation, Fall 2004).
Remember that the best plans are sure to change. It is equally important to be flexible as it is to plan well. Be prepared for changes in weather, schedules, and even to the original idea for the video. At all stages in the planning process it is helpful to revisit objectives and make sure that the script, storyboard, and shot selection best address the project's intent.
An often-overlooked aspect of pre-production is preparing the equipment. To avoid shooting delays, check that you have everything that you need and that it is in good working order. Replace or charge all of the batteries and have backups handy. Consider collecting additional microphones, tripods, extension power cords, lights, and duct tape. Becoming familiar with the equipment prior to the event avoids wasting valuable time for all involved (A. Foley, public presentation, Fall 2004).
Shooting Video
With good planning, the actual filming should be fairly straightforward.
Remember that it is appropriate, in fact recommended, to reshoot, except
when impossible such as with live events. It is acceptable to ask someone
to repeat what they said in an interview. Below are basic guidelines
for producing professional looking video for use in the classroom.
Composition & Framing
There are three basic types of shots: long, medium, and close-up. Which you use depends on what you are trying to convey with the shot. In general it is wise to vary between long shots (to give context) and closer shots (Click and Go Video, 2002). This will give your video a more professional look than one, long, unbroken shot.
A long shot frames a wide
field of view including subjects and surroundings. Long shots establish
the setting and location of what is to follow or may be used to cover
broad acting involving several people. Use long shots sparingly as they
do not allow for a lot of detail, particularly if you will be showing
the video on a small screen. [For a video example see http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=longshotx.mov]
Medium shots include your
subject while still revealing some of the background. For a person,
a medium shot would show them from the waist up. The greater detail
in medium shots makes them more interesting than long shots. (For a
video example see http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=mediumshotx.mov)
Close up shots focus the
viewer's attention on specific details and is useful for getting the
most impact out of a shot. A close up of a person would include the
shoulders to the top of the head. It is crucial to use a tripod when
filming close up shots as the slightest camera motion will be distracting
(Composing Basic Camera Shots, 2004). In fact, use a tripod
whenever possible. A tripod will give a more stable shot with smoother
panning, tilting, and zooming. (For a video example see http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=closeupx.mov)
Whatever the shot, framing
the main subject or action is also important. The standard means for
obtaining balance in a shot is to organize the shot so the main elements
of your shot are placed along lines that divide the screen into thirds
(like a tic-tac-toe board) and particularly at the intersections of
these lines. This is referred to as the “rule of thirds" ( Click
and Go Video, 2002) . For example, when shooting outdoors, try
to put the horizon on the lower third or the upper third line depending
on if the more interesting scenery is above or below the horizon. When
shooting a person, put his/her head (when shooting the whole body) or
eyes (when doing a close up shot) either on the left or right upper
third intersection. To visualize how this works, watch interviews and
segments on local news television shows to see how photographers frame
their shots. (For a video example see http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=rulethirdsx.mov)
It is also important to consider
the space around your subject. Leave enough room above and in front
of the subject (if he/she is facing sideways) and avoid awkward cut
off points such as the neck, knees, or wrists. If the subject is moving,
be sure that the direction of their motion is consistent during a sequence
of shots and give them plenty of lead space so it does not appear that
they are walking off the screen. (For video examples see http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=leadspace1x.mov
and http://www.atomiclearning.com/cgi/atomicmovielog.cgi?movie=cutoffsx.mov)
Bear in mind that the angle
from where you film a subject can also convey meaning. Positioning the
camera so that it is pointed upward may assign power or omniscience
to the subject whereas shooting downward on a subject may make them
appear weak, submissive, and powerless (A. Foley, public presentation,
Fall 2004). Finally, if you are showing viewers how to do something,
be sure to put the camera in the same position as the student or user
so that the viewer's perspective is best for replicating the process
(Click and Go Video, 2002).
Timing
When preparing and filming shots think about timing. Keep the shots
just long enough to convey the message without boring the audience.
Avoid static shots of more than a few seconds. Use cutaways to convey
the passage of time. For example, to show the time it takes a cake to
bake, show the cake being put in the oven, cutaway to the chef doing
some other activity, and then cut back to the finished cake being removed
from the oven. While the cake may take 30 minutes to bake, this sequence
can be shown in about 30 seconds (Click and Go Video, 2002).
While these shots will not be combined until the editing process, it
is important to keep this in mind while planning and shooting.
Another timing consideration is more technical in nature. It takes a short amount of time for the tape in the camera to get up to speed. For this reason, you want to be sure the camera is recording at least 10 seconds before the action you wish to record takes place. It is also a good idea to let the camera record at least 10 seconds after the shot as well. This extra time will give you a little more flexibility when you are ready to edit (A. Foley, public presentation, Fall 2004).
Lighting & Audio
When it comes to lighting, a professional light kit is best but most schools do not have access to this equipment. Fortunately there are many ways to improvise. When no extra lighting is available, outdoors is better than indoors and a bright, overcast sky is best. However, be sure to watch for shadows and bright spots (A. Foley, public presentation, Fall 2004).
If you have any control over the lighting, it is a good idea to bring a couple of gooseneck lamps. A soft light on each side of the camera or a soft sidelight and a front light will help eliminate most shadows. Make sure the subject appears clearly and distinctly from the background with no extra shadows.
Poor audio is the biggest mark of amateur video. Use a microphone that is appropriate for the specific shot to capture the best sound possible. Also, be aware of, and try to reduce, any background noise that may distract from the sound you are trying to capture.
Preparing your Subjects & Location
With all of the focus on equipment it is easy to forget about preparing what will be in front of your camera. Just as you should be familiar with your camera, you should also get to know the location you will be filming. This will help you plan where you want to place the camera and what extra equipment such as extension cords and extra lights you might want to bring.
Actors, interviewees, and
other subjects should also be considered. Discuss what you hope to get
out of shots ahead of time. If you are filming an interview or presentation,
do a practice run to get an idea of what to expect such as pacing or
large arm gestures. Encourage subjects to avoid wearing monotone colors
or clothing with large patterns. Also, avoid reds and yellows, as they
do not film well. And, of course, be sure to get a permission form from
all who will appear in your video, particularly from the parents of
students and other minors (Click and Go Video, 2002).
Special Considerations for the Internet
If you are planning on publishing on the Internet, there are several things you can do while filming to maximize the quality of your film and keep the memory size reasonable.
The simplest thing you can do is use little or no camera motion (panning and zooming). Because the window size for video on the web is considerably smaller than a TV screen, use as many close up shots as possible and avoid long shots, as the detail will be lost. Background detail can also eat up valuable memory so, if possible, film shots against a plain background.
After You Film
When you finish, or even as you film, be sure to catalogue your tapes. On the case jacket label exactly what you filmed on that tape along with the timing. For example 0-7:32 – Interview with Dr. Smith, 7:35 - 18:18 – Sound demonstration. This will be helpful when it comes time to edit.
Editing
One of the features of digital video is the ease of editing.
Numerous software packages are available ranging from free to thousands
of dollars depending on the level of control and options needed. For
most classroom purposes, free versions are more than adequate. All Macintosh
computers released today come preloaded with iMovie (http://www.apple.com/ilife/imovie/).
Windows XP also has a video-editing program, Windows Movie
Maker, that comes pre-installed or can be downloaded for free (http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/downloads/updates/moviemaker2.mspx).
For those who wish to take it a step further, Adobe Premiere Elements
(http://www.adobe.com/products/premiereel/main.html)
and Final Cut Express http://www.apple.com/finalcutexpress/)
are excellent programs.
The first step to editing video is to capture (digitize or encode) footage and download it onto the computer. For most cameras today this requires a FireWire (IEEE 1394) cable. This comes standard on most Macs and many PCs. If you computer does not have a FireWire connection, it is inexpensive (less than $50) to purchase and install a FireWire card. For video, computers require sufficient memory--about 14 GB of hard disk space for each hour of video (J. Davis, public presentation, January 2005).
Most editing programs have several similar features such as a bin for storing and organizing video clips, a timeline for arranging the clips in order, and a preview window for viewing the clips and the edited video. They include a variety of transitions to use between clips, as well as special effects, and the ability to insert titles and additional audio such as music and sound effects (Martindale, 2002).
When editing, keep in mind the original goals and objectives of the project. Make sure that each clip, sequence decision, and effect addresses the message or content. The storyboard can help guide the editing, but remaining flexible is key.
