Maps prepared by Brian Rosenfeld

Forest Products of Costa Rica

Prepared by Amanda White

“The most exotic, finest of woods that flourish in Costa Rica, together with a strict program of forest and woodlands conservation and management, enable Costa Rica to produce articles of wood that are among the most highly coveted in the world.
Species such as Teak (Tectona Grandis), Gmelina (Gmelina Arborea), Mexican Cypress (Cupressus Lusitanica), Cedarwood (Cedrela Odorata), Monkey Pod (Pithecellobium Saman), Costa Rican Mahogany (Carapa Guianensis) and Laurel (Cordia Alliodora), among others, are used to produce wood chips, precision dimensioned wood, moldings, panels, banisters, bleachers, wood for construction, pencils, wood laminated and cross-laminated goods, planks of pressed woods, solid wooden doors, frames and moldings for doors, and furniture made of wood (both simple and ornate) for interiors and exteriors. Over the past few decades, there has been an explosive growth In the area of living ornamentals -- foliages, flowers, and plants. The United States, Japan, and Europe, whose consumers demand the ultimate in quality, have been our major export destinations.”

		Forest Products Production 1992-2000
			Units x1000	1992	1993	1994	1995		1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Roundwood			Cum	4601	4617	5093	5151		5178	5175	5166	5166	5173
Industrial Roundwood			Cum	1073	1110	1597	1655		1661	1668	1666	1673	1687
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs			Cum	840	870	1350	1400		1400	1400	1400	1400	1441
Pulpwood and Particles			Cum	8	8	8	8		8	8	0	0	0
Other Indust Roundwd			Cum	225	232	239	247		253	260	266	273	246
Wood Fuel			Cum	3528	3507	3496	3496		3517	3507	3500	3493	3486
Sawnwood			Cum	772	798	746	780		780	780	780	780	812
Sawnwood (C)			Cum	12	12	11	12		12	12	12	12	12
Sawnwood (NC)			Cum	760	786	735	768		768	768	768	768	800
Wood-Based Panels			Cum	72	74	74	74		74	74	74	74	65
Veneer Sheets			Cum	20	21	21	21		21	21	21	21	21
Plywood			Cum	22	22	22	22		22	22	22	22	22
Particle Board			Cum	30	31	31	31		31	31	31	31	22
Wood Pulp			Mt	3	3	3	3		3	3	3	3	3
Mechanical Wood Pulp			Mt	3	3	3	3		3	3	3	3	3
Other Fibre Pulp			Mt	7	7	7	7		7	7	7	7	7
Recovered Paper			Mt	11	11	11	11		11	11	11	11	11
Paper and Paperboard			Mt	19	19	20	20		20	20	20	20	20
Other Paper+Paperboard			Mt	19	19	20	20		20	20	20	20	20

http://www.fao.org/forestry/fo/country/index

CATIE

Prepared by Amanda White

- CATIE is an acronym for Centro Agronomico Tropical Investigacion y Ensenanza

- “The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) is a regional center dedicated to research and graduate education in agriculture and the management, conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Its Regular Members include the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), Belize, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Venezuela. CATIE's core budget is strengthened by generous, annual contributions from these members. The Ministers of Agriculture or of the Environment of member countries constitute its Governing Council.”

- “CATIE´s headquarters are located 3 km from the center of Turrialba, Costa Rica, 64km southeast of San Jose, the capital city.”

- “CATIE on modern and efficient student support systems that make it one of the best specialized professional institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean.”

- “CATIE serves as a permanent consulting and advising organization for regional countries. These activities are focused primarily on:

1. National public institutions
2. Private organizations
3. Academic and scientific organizations
4. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's)

- “With the implementation of the new institutional development plan, CATIE assumes the goal of providing its services and products to the global community.

http://www.catie.ac.cr/catie/

Kirsten Collings

General

Yes Sí see

No No No

Please Por favor Pour fa-vore

Thank you Gracias Grawsi-us

Also También tahmbee-en

Greetings/Partings

Hello Hola O-la

Goodbye Adios A-dee-ose

How are you? Cómo está? Ko-mo es-ta

Fine Bien Bee-en

Pleased to meet you Mucho gusto Moocho goosto

Excuse me Perdón Pear-done (like condone)

Do you speak English? Habla inglés? Ab-la eenglais

I don’t speak Spanish No hablo español No ab-lo es-pan-yole

Mr. Señor Sen-yor

Mrs. Señora Sen-yora

Miss Señorita Senyor-eeta

Restaurant vocab

We have (1,2,3) people with us Somos (uno, dos, tres) Sew-mose (oo-no, dose, trace)

I would like… Quisiera kee-see-era

This esto es-to

Water (uncarbonated) Agua sin gas Agua seen gas

Chicken Pollo Poy-yo

Beef Carne Kar-nay

Beans Frijoles Free-hoe-lays

Rice Arroz A-ros

Potato Papa papa

Bread Pan Pahn

Juice Jugo Hu-go

Beer Cervesa Ser-vaysa

Wine Vino Veeno

Check please La cuenta por favor La cwen-ta pour fa-vore

Useful Questions

Where is… Dónde está… Doneday es-ta

The rest room los servicios los ser-vee-cee-os

A restaurant un restaurante une rest-ow-rante

The bus station la estación de buses (autobuses) la es-tas-eeone day booses

Can you call a taxi for me? Puede llamar un taxi para mi? Pwayday ya-mar une taxi pahra mi

Forestry Vocab

shrub/bush arbusto are-boosto

tree árbol are-bole

forest bosque bos-kay

leaves hojas O-hahs

grass pasto / grama pahsto / grahma

stream arroyo / riachuelo a-royo / ree-ach-waylo

hardwood madera dura ma-dera du-ra

furniture muebles mweblayse

crops cultivos cool-teev-os

farms granja grahn-ha

vine parra pahrra

roots raíces rie-ee-saise

soil suelo swaylo

land tierra tee-era

Bill Schroyer

Geography and Climate:

Costa Rica lies completely within the tropics between Nicaragua, to the north and Panama, to the south. Rising up between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans Costa Rica creates a land bridge connecting North and South America. Unique to the world, this region is the only area between two oceans and two continents. The volcanic chain of mountains forming the spine of the country, ranging from extinct to active, complicate the climatic cycle creating microclimates. Climate can vary over short distances due to the rugged mountains that affect wind, rain and temperature.

Generally Costa Rica has two seasons, wet and dry. The dry season, from about December to April, is considered summer (verano) as it is the most agreeable weather. The rest of the year, May to November, is winter or invierno. Known as the "Green Season" this time of year is considerably wet as it may rain up to 20 days a month. The Caribbean coast tends to be wet year round with the dry season defined by fewer rainy days with nice weather lasting a week or more. Rainfall averages are higher on the Caribbean side than the Pacific side. The north and central Pacific have similar rain patterns to the highlands while the southern Pacific can experience rain all year.

Temperature varies little from season to season with the most drastic changes in the higher elevations. Temperature fluctuations are greater between day and night than between seasons. The high peaks of Costa Rica are one of the few places polar air, although weakened, can get this close to the equator. Low temperatures, even falling below freezing, are not uncommon in the higher elevations and occur mostly in the dry season.

Land Use and Land Use History:

Costa Rica was once one of the most deforested countries in the world. Today it is a pioneer in reforestation, forest management, and forest protection policies. The main change in Costa Rican land use since 1950 has been the transformation of forests into pastures and farmland. The predominant vision of development and economic growth was linked with agro-export production, which supported the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching. In the 1980s, however, Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) introduced by the World Bank reduced the profitability of agriculture and cattle ranching in marginal forestlands. SAPs, along with Costa Rican policies that created special conservation areas and promoted reforestation and forest management, have significantly reduced rates of deforestation.

This evolution of Costa Rica's forest policies would have been impossible without a strong system of governmental and non-governmental organizations capable of adapting to new situations. The forest sector in Costa Rica has evolved from an inactive sector without private organizations, technology, or specialized education, to a proactive sector with multiple organizations that lobby effectively for forest sector measures. The Costa Rican government contributed to the evolution of several private forest sector associations. Many new public sector agencies were developed to handle forest issues. Contrary to the command-and-control structure that typifies many government agencies, the government now works to facilitate private sector participation in and responsibility for forest management.
(Summary: World Bank Case Study)

Costa Rica~ Outreach, Extension, and Environmental Education

Prepared by Elizabeth Lee

Costa Rica is a country that is (and must be) very environmentally conscious. With some of the most diverse tropical forest communities in the world, the continual development, agriculture, and tourism demands constant awareness in order to protect their rare lands.

There are many programs devoted to research, conservation protection and public education. The hard part is searching for them online. The following is an outline of a few of these programs that are carried out by different organizations.

The Conservation Agriculture Network

CAN is an alliance of several private, independent, non-profit environmental organizations scattered among the Americas. They present a program that offers certification to farmers promoting ecologically and socially sustainable management. Stakeholders develop standards, train local non-government organizations to appraise farms according to the standards, and certify farmers that meet the terms. The farms that acquire certification may use the ECO-O.K.^TM and Better Banana^TM eco-labels for promotion and marketing.

One of the most vital programs that CAN enforces is integrated pest management, or IPM. This is very important because the use of banned chemicals is still routine in the management of crops in the tropics. The Conservation Agriculture Network is anticipating the reawakening of traditional farming that relied on biological control of crop pests. Because lack of information and education is a prime obstacle for environmental and social modification, CAN is helping to spread the idea of integrated pest management.

The Conservation Agriculture Network has an established outreach system. Some of the objectives in their programs include training, creating and providing training materials, outreach seminars, Innovator’s Roundup seminar, and a focus on increasing CAN enrollment. CAN certified farms are also inspected each year, and environmental impact (responsible cultivation, conservation of biological diversity, and protection of communities and workers) evaluated on a normal basis.

The following includes CAN members and representatives and their contact information:

COSTA RICA	UNITED STATES
Centro Cientifico Tropical	Rainforest Alliance
Julio Calvo Alvarado	Costa Rica Office:	New York Office:
Apdo. 8-3870 C.P. 1000 San Jose, Costa Rica	Chris Wille, Director Conservation Agriculture Program	Justine Kent, Manager Conservation Agriculture Program
	Apdo.138-2150 Monrovia, San Jose, Costa Rica	65 Bleecker St. 6^thFloor
Tel: 506-253-3267 Fax: 506-253-4963		New York, NY 10012
	Tel: 506-240-9383 Fax: 506-240-2543	Tel: 212-677-1900 Fax: 212-677-2187

U.S Environmental Protection Agency

Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program

Rainforest Allicance- ECO o.k. Program

The U.S. EPA is also a part of the Sustainable Agriculture Network and a Pesticide Environmental Stewardship program supporter since 1997. The Rainforest Alliance certifies environmentally sound crops, and consults with environmental and social organizations, industries, and government stakeholders to maintain guidelines for proper management of tropical farming.

Members and contact information:

Aimee Russillo	Chris Wille, Director	Driss Benmhend, EPA Liaison
Rainforest Alliance- ECO o.k. Program	Information above	U.S. EPA/OPP/BPPD
65 Bleecker St. 6^th Floor New York, NY 10012-2420		1200 Pennsylvania Ave NW (7511C) Washington, DC 20460
Tel: 212-677-1900 Fax: 212-677-2187		Tel: 703-308-9525 Fax: 703-308-7026
arussillo@ra.org		benmhend.driss@epa.gov

The Organization for Tropical Studies

OTS, a non-profit network of over 60 universities and research station in the U.S., Costa Rica, etc, was founded in order to educate in the understanding of the immeasurable and exceptional natural resources of the tropics. They provide research facilities, professional training, conservation activities, and environmental education programs. Most of the organization’s expenses are paid for by private support from foundations, corporations, individuals, and government agencies.

Volunteer opportunities are fairly limited and at times hard to fill. OTS requests volunteers to make significant time and financial commitments in order to make a difference. To be considered for volunteer research programs in Costa Rica, email nao@duke.edu.

ORGANIZATION FOR TROPICAL STUDIES:

Outreach, Extension, and Environmental Education

Prepared by Elizabeth Lee

The Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS) was founded in 1963 as a non-profit organization. Its 64 members include Colleges, Universities, and research institutions from the U.S., Latin America, and Australia. OTS was organized to “provide leadership in education, research, and the responsible use of natural resources in the tropics”. To satisfy this mission statement, OTS provides over 200 graduate courses in natural sciences, as well as undergraduate programs, professional and educational training, outreach, and research and/or volunteer opportunities. With this highly connected network of devoted scientists, educators, researchers, and local communities, OTS promotes ecological restoration, biodiversity, and therefore provides continuous scientific learning and understanding (on both the professional and general public levels) of the tropical rainforests and their biology and ecosystems.

EDUCATION: As stated above, OTS offers both graduate and undergraduate programs. There are also existing fellowships provided by the organization for graduate students wishing to use OTS facilities for thesis research.

OUTREACH: The Organization for Tropical Studies also reaches out to the general public with environmental education that promotes biodiversity and sustaining natural resources. Open house sessions and public seminars are scheduled frequently to get in touch with local farmers, teachers, school children, natural history visitors, and other members of local communities.

RESEARCH: OTS maintains and facilitates research by logistical support of independent projects, financial and administrative management, and by forming groups of local and international scientific partners while even providing biological research field stations.

The three field stations located in Costa Rica are in alliance with the Organization of Biological Field Stations to “promote interchange of professionals for biological research and education”. These facilities include the Las Cruces Biological Station and Wilson Botanical Garden, the Palo Verde Biological Station, and the internationally renowned La Selva Biological Station.

All information was gathered from the following website:

http://www.ots.duke.edu/

The Government and Forest Policies of Costa Rica. Prepared by Anthony Snider.

Brief political history – As a result of sparse pre-Columbian population in Costa Rica (CR) and its demise at European invasion, no source of free labor was available for the creation of the large estates that occurred elsewhere in Latin America. Additionally, Spanish immigrants to CR seldom intermarried with natives, so the bloodline class system found in other colonies did not develop. These conditions helped create an egalitarian society ripe for democracy. Following independence in 1821, CR experienced political turmoil until its first truly free election in 1889. Challenges to Costa Rican democracy developed in 1917 (over progressive taxation, unsuccessfully resisted by the wealthy), and the 1940s (culminating in civil war over election issues). The 1948 civil war pitted the forces of former President Rafael Calderón (backed by Nicaragua) against José Figueres (a 42 y.o. coffee farmer, engineer, economist, and philosopher, supported by Guatemala and Cuba). Figueres won (after 44 days and 2,000 deaths) and continued Calderón’s reforms as well as extending suffrage, setting term limits on the presidency, abolishing armies (including his own), and nationalizing banks and insurance companies. By agreement, after 18 months Figueres handed power to the winner of the disputed 1948 election and created the National Liberation Party (PLN). Figures later served as president and is revered as a national hero. The 1940s also saw the development of the United Social Christian Party (PUSC), a coalition of the Catholic Church, communists and supporters of Calderón. Since 1948, with few exceptions, the presidency has alternated between PLN and PUSC candidates, the former espousing state intervention and the latter touting market-based approaches.

Political structure – CR is a democratic republic with executive, legislative (unicameral) and judicial branches bounded by strong checks and balances. The president, two-vice presidents, and 57 members of the Legislature are elected for four year terms. The president and vice-presidents are limited to one term. The judicial branch is comprised of 22 magistrates elected by the Legislature for renewable eight year terms. CR’s seven provinces are administered by president appointed governors, who have little power. There are no provincial legislatures. Costa Ricans elected Abel Pacheco, of the PUSC, to the presidency in a runoff election in April of this year. The CIA lists nine active political parties in CR, but notes that the political arena is dominated primarily by the PUSC and the PLN, with the other parties combined garnering less than 25% of the population’s support. Responsibility for forestry (formerly primarily in the General Directorate of Forestry (DGF)) has shifted from the Ministry of Agriculture and Cattle Ranching in 1986 to what became the Ministry of Atmosphere and Energy (MINAE, the primary agency for sustainable development). In 1995, the DGF was combined with the directorates of wildlife and the national parks and placed within the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC). Housed in MINAE, SINAC divided the country into 11 decentralized conservation regions, each of which is expected to secure its own funding and has decision making authority for its area. NGOs are also active in CR forestry issues, due to policy changes which allow them to oversee compliance with regulations.

Forest policy overview – CR was once one of the most deforested countries in the world, having experienced what may have been the highest rate of deforestation on the globe during the ‘70s. Forest and woodland now cover 31% of the country and 25% of CR’s territory is in protected forest (11% preserved, 14% in regulated zones), although the system of parks and reserves is inadequately funded and patrolled to prevent degradation. Of privately held forestlands, ~70% are held by smaller landholders. Costa Rican forest policy may be divided into three overlapping periods: laissez-faire (pre-‘70), interventionist (‘70s-‘80s), modern hybrid (‘90s). The laissez-faire period was characterized by a lack of forest regulations and a pervasive opinion that forests were an impediment to economic advancement. Deforestation was driven by a demand for agricultural land rather than a demand for timber and squatting was more prevalent on forested land than cleared land. The interventionist period was characterized by the creation of national parks, regulations governing forestry on private lands, a prohibition on exporting logs, and financial incentives for reforestation, natural forest management, and forest preservation. All harvesting required a permit from DGF. The government lacked resources and expertise to provide supervision necessary under this regulatory approach. Most of the incentives offered for forestry activities went to largeholders. The modern hybrid system is still developing and is wrestling with the choice of a regulatory versus market approaches. A traditional local distrust of the latter is balanced by lack of funding for the former. USAID supports market approaches and helped create The Costa Rican Forestry Chamber (CCF) to help organize the forestry sector of the economy. The alternative approach is espoused by The National Rural Forestry Board (JUNAFORCA, an organization of small and medium forest owners, including of over 56 grassroots and five regional organizations). A compromise law was signed in 1996, prohibiting harvesting on private lands important for biodiversity or watershed protection. It also simplified forest management plan requirements (lowering the cost to landowners), created The National Forestry Office (ONF, a non-governmental panel with representatives from all forestry interests that serves to advise the minister of the environment), deregulated forestry plantations, and created a new forestry fund to support forestry activities of small and medium producers (The National Fund of Forestry Financing (FONAFIFO)). Funded in part by taxes (fossil fuels and water), FONAFIFO payments have engendered controversy in CR and have had administrative problems, but have been largely successful. In 1997, payments supported reforestation of 6,500 hectares, management of 10,000 hectares and protection of 79,000 hectares. Demand for payments is currently surpassing funding levels. Costa Rica is also at the forefront of market development of tradable carbon credits, but with only limited success.

Culture and Food

Jacek Siry

Culture

Costa Rica is noted more for its natural beauty and friendly people than for its culture. The overwhelming European influence erased almost all indigenous culture, and because Costa Rica remains a predominantly agrarian society, where the family and the village community are the cornerstone of society, cultural activity has only begun to blossom in the last 100 years. While the country is impoverished in the area of native arts and crafts, the tradition of pottery and traditional weaving is retained. Many of the best crafts come from Sarchi, where families are producing exquisitely contoured bowls, serving dishes, and carretas (oxcarts), for which the village is famous worldwide.

Over 90% of the country is Roman Catholic, but Costa Ricans are said to be "lukewarm" when it comes to religion, and folkloric beliefs in witchcraft are still common. People of African decent on the Caribbean coast tend to be Protestant, and there is a sprinkling of other denominations in San Jose, including a small Jewish community. Spanish is the official and predominant language, though English is understood in tourist areas. Creole, a lively dialect of English is spoken by some on the Caribbean coast. Indian languages are spoken in isolated areas, primarily Bribri, which is estimated to be understood by about 10,000 people.

Costa Ricans are relatively well-educated people. The notion of democracy and the ideals of personal liberty are strongly cherished. Costa Rica is progressive and moderately successful in advancing the equal rights of women. Costa Ricans often call themselves the Ticos, the name said to be stemming from the colonial saying "we are all hermaniticos" or little brothers. Above all, the behavior and comments of most Ticos are dedicated by a desire to leave a good impression (quedar bien). As such, they are very courteous. While most Ticos may lack a passionate interest in literature and other arts, they love to dance. On weekends, rural folks flock to small town dance halls, and the Tico's celebrated reserve gives way to passionate dancing. Many dances and much of music reflect African and Spanish roots.

Food

Costa Rican cuisine is simple and spices are shunned. Comida tipica, or native dishes, rely heavily on rice and beans, the basis for many Costa Rican meals. Gallo pinto (literally "spotted rooster"), the national dish of fried rice and black beans is very common, particularly as a breakfast (desayuno) staple. Many other meals are derivates, including arroz con pollo (rice and chicken). At lunch, gallo pinto becomes the casado (married): rice and beans supplemented with cabbage-and-tomato salad, fried plantains, and meat. Food staples include carne (beef), pollo (chicken) and pescado (fish). Since Costa Rica exports most of its seafood, especially shrimps (camarones) and lobster (langosto) can be quite expensive. Vegetables do not form a large part of the diet, and are frequently overcooked. Costa Rica, however, grows many delicious exotic fruits that are widely available, including tamarind, papaya, mango, passion fruit, pineapple, and guava. Dining in Costa Rica is a leisurely experience and does not present health problems that plague the unwary traveler elsewhere in Central America, but common precautions still apply.

Drinks

Costa Rica has no national drink, perhaps with the exception of horchata, a cinnamon-flavored cornmeal drink, and guaro, the campesino's near-tasteless yet powerful sugarcane drink of choice. Coffee, of course, is Costa Rica's grano d'oro (grain of gold). Since most coffee is exported, do not expect consistently good coffee everywhere you go. Coffee is traditionally served very strong and mixed with hot milk. Pepsi and Coca-Cola as well as sparkling water (agua mineral) are popular and widely available. The Costa Rican refreshers are refrescos, energizing fruit drinks. They are a great way to taste the local fruits. Refrescos, however, are usually high on sugar; if they are made to order you may want to ask for sin azucar (no sugar). Lovers of beer (cerveza) are served locally brewed pilsners and lagers that reflect early German presence in Costa Rica. Imperial and Bavaria are the two most popular brews, and Tropical is a low calorie "lite" beer.

Ecotourism

Andrew Whittier

Ecotourism is defined by the Ecotourism Society as “responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people.” Responsible travel refers to concept such as take only picture, leave only footprints, low impact camping, and support of local cultures. Furthermore profits from ecotourism ventures are likely to be put into furthering research as well as protection of larger pieces of wilderness, as well as investing in local economies for supplies and labor. This definition illuminates the major pros and cons of ecotourism. Many opponents of this type of travel feel that with an influx of tourists wilderness will be degraded and native cultures will be become weakened. Allowing to many people to visit a wilderness site can lead to a decline in the quantity of wildlife. The point that visitors to different environments can transport foreign plants and animals to and from afar and possibly destroying native wildlife is another of the major arguments against ecotourism. On the opposite side of this argument there those that feel that money raised by ecotourism can be put directly back into helping protect the environment. Ecotourism is also able to help create jobs in areas in which local residents may be employed as wilderness guides and/or other jobs related to tourism. Ecotourism also aids local economies with the purchase of goods and foods in areas that may not normally have this type of market. A balance between the pros and cons of ecotourism can be found by finding the level of tourism that each different location and cultures can sustain. Interest in Yellowstone Park was increased by railroad and hotel construction while grizzly bear populations plummeted. In contrast, countries like Kenya that have an abundance of wilderness yet suffer from rural poverty earned approximately $500 million in tourism revenues in 1992.

Developing countries often find ecotourism an attractive option due to low investment costs. The costs of starting a small, rustic tourist facilities typical among the ecotourism industry are relatively small when compared to traditional tourist attractions such as beach resorts. This helps local economies in that it is much more feasible to create these faculties without outside investments and profits are much more likely to go back into the community. Smaller facilities are also much more likely to utilize local supplies thus helping to support their economy. Additionally ecotourism helps to create a deeper understanding and appreciation of the environment amongst its participants. This increased interest often times leads to support of conservation efforts be it donations of time, money, or research.

Guidelines for ecotourism vary with each the different location visited. The principal rule for all ecotravel would be that of Take only picture, leave only footprints. If your trip is going to made with a group it is important to look at the politics of that particular group. Questions about how they support local economies and cultures as well as what they are doing to help further conservation should be asked. Use of natural resources should be efficient and within local regulations. Camping should be low impact and travel by muscle power when available. Animal watching should be done at a distance that neither frightens the animals nor places the viewer in danger. When making purchase one should try one buy local products. Other then the general rule that tourists Take only picture, leave only footprints, earning and respecting local regulations and customs is probably the most important guidelines for a responsible eotourist.

Forest Types

Jamie Schuler

Forest Types are classified based on temperature, precipitation, and rainfall seasonality. PET ratio (mean annual potential evapotranspiration: mean annual precipitation) separates dry, moist, wet, and rain forests, ratios >1, 1-0.5, 0.5-0.25, and <0.25, respectively. The altitudinal classifications are based on the mean annual temperature. Lower montane and premontane range from 12-18°C and 18-24°C, respectively. Tropical forests have mean annual temperatures exceeding 24°C.

Tropical Dry Forest

Trees are semi-deciduous with 2 canopy strata. Upper canopy is 20-30 m tall. Trees with short, stout trunks with flat crowns. Mimosoid and Caesalpinioid species are prevalent in the upper canopy. Rubiaceae common in 2^nd stratum. Woody vines prevalent. Soils are commonly rhyolitic ash and montmorrillonite. Typically dry for 6 months/yr.

Tropical Moist Forest

The most extensive forest type in Costa Rica. Trees are semi-deciduous to evergreen. Canopy has multiple strata with the upper canopy 40-50 m tall. Buttressing common. Palms dominate the 2^nd stratum. The understory extends 8-20 m, with trees having round-conical crowns. Vines and epiphytes are abundant. The ground surface tends to be bare.

Tropical Wet Forest

This is the 2^nd most abundant forest type. Forest is multi-strata and evergreen. The upper canopy is 45-55 m tall, and trees have umbrella-shaped crowns and high buttresses. The subcanopy is 30-40 m tall, and trees generally lack buttresses. The understory is 10-25 m tall, with narrow crown, twisted and crooked stem trees. These are the most species rich forests.

Premontane Moist Forest

There is little primary forest left. This forest type is found in highly populated intermountain basin regions of Costa Rica. Forest has 2 strata, semi-deciduous, with 25 m tall upper canopy. The ground layer is sparse. Vines abundant, epiphytes rare.

Premontane Wet Forest

The forest has 2-3 strata. Trees are semi-evergreen, moderately tall 30-40 m with small buttresses. Lower canopy trees with stilt roots and strap-like leaves. Vines and moss common on trees. Ground layer bare, except for ferns, vines, and moss.

Premontane Rain Forest

Forest has 2-3 layer strata. Trees are evergreen with 30-40 m canopy and small buttresses. A dense subcanopy forms at 15-25 m. The understory is dense, and tree ferns common. Moss, epiphytes, and vines very abundant.

Lower Montane Rain Forest

Forest has 2 strata. Trees are evergreen and 25-30 m tall with small compact crowns. The understory and subcanopy are dense. Epiphytes and moss common, few woody vines. Cloud forests at Monteverde fall into this category.

Montane Rain Forest

Forest has 2 strata. Trees are evergreen and 25-30 m tall. The 2^nd canopy is thin. A thick shrub layer present, and many dwarf bamboo common. Woody vines and moss abundant, and epiphytes small.

Mangrove Forest

Areas that are influenced by subtidal or intertidal substrate. Most mangroves have viviparous seedlings. There are 5-7 mangrove species present in Costa Rica..

Considerations of Costa Rican Forest Management and Environmental Organizations.

Prepared by Mary Beth Plummer

One third of the total land area is covered by forest. The majority of which is commercially productive of ebony, balsa, mahogany, and cedar. Hydroelectricity is used for industrial operations.

Topography. Costa Rica has a central mountainous region that runs the

length of the country, consisting of four separate ranges. The land area is roughly

divided between low, middle, or highest of the mountainous regions. The Coastal Plain is heavily forested, agroforestry systems where bananas, cocoa, and sugar cane are cultivated. Rich agricultural soils are concentrated in the Medesta Central and in the river valleys.

Climate. Conditions are tropical. Plants endure temperatures that are

distinctly warm over many days, with moderate rainfall during the season.

Vegetation. The primary vegetation along the lower and mid-elevations

slopes is typed as rain forest, a product of moisture. A Cloud Forest appropriately

named is dark, cool, and moist thanks to the low lying blanket of clouds.

Composition. The most stiking element of tropical forest is a high

degree of species diversity. Between fifty to hundreds of tree species can exist within

just a few forested acres. The same can be said for insects as well as birds.

Shapes. The buttressed trees grow to great heights, before branching

into umbrella like crowns. Emergents are characteristic of the tropical forest,

those present in the upper layer or canopy. The next highest layer is the understory of

shorter and younger trees. Followed with dense concentrations of broad-leaved

understory shrubs and herbaceous species. To name a couple, the Araceae family which

includes Dumb Cane and the climbers suspended along the trunks from the genus

Monstera, Philodendron, and Syngonium, along with the Marantaceae family which

includes the Rattlesnake plant due to the yellow flower resembling the rattle.

Aesthetics. Bright red passion flowers hanging off the vines.

Interactions. Relationships between a tree and an orhcid. The orchid

benefits of gaining grow space and the tree is unaffected.

Twenty – seven percent of Costa Rica is protected land – forest reserves and Indian reservations

Parks and Reserves in the Caribbean lowlands include Cano Negro National

Wildlife Refuge (CNWR), La Selva Biological Reserve (LSBR), Tortuguero National

Park (TONP), and Cahuita National Park (CHNP).

Parks in the central region include Rincon de la Vieja National Park (RVNP),

Arenal Volcano National Park (ARVL), Mounteverde Cloud Forest Reserve (MVCR),

Paos Volcano National Park (PONP), Braulio Carrillo National Park (BCNP), the Las

Cruces OTS station and its Wilson Botanical Garden (WIBG), and La Amistad National

Park (LANP).

Parks in the Pacific lowlands are Santa Rosa National Park (SRNP), Palo Verde

National Park (PVNP), CABR, Manuel Antonia National Park, and Corcovado National

Park (CONP).

Restoration and Reforestation in Costa Rica

Duncan Quinn

Tropical forests once covered an estimated 96-99% of land in Costa Rica. Over recent decades, approximately 90% of original forests have been destroyed and 46% of total land has been converted to cattle pastures (Leopold et al. 2001). Deforestation continues at a rate of 3.1% per year. With so few timber resources remaining, Costa Rica now imports more timber than it exports (Leopold et al.).

Efforts to reforest Costa Rica are of critical importance in preserving and enhancing biodiversity, restoring degraded soils, providing carbon sequestration, and establishing a sustainable supply of forest materials. However, there are many challenges to overcome on the path to successful restoration.

Changing economics of beef production have negatively impacted the cattle industry in Costa Rica over the last 20 years, leaving in its wake numerous abandoned pasturelands. These fields now sit idle on what was once tropical forest. Recruitment of tree species from adjacent forests into old pasture is very slow and numerous factors are believed to hamper this process such as low soil nutrients, herbaceous competition, and predation. However, two studies (Zimmerman et al. 2000; Wijdeven and Kuzee 2000) demonstrate that seed availability is one of the greatest limiting factors in natural tropical forest regeneration. Both suggest that while pioneer species can naturally colonize abandoned pastures and produce a forest of comparable biomass to mature forests in tens of years, restoring forests of like composition will require significant intervention in the form of seeding and planting of certain native species, particularly those with fruits that are not wind or bird dispersed.

Forest plantations have been utilized as a means of reforestation (not restoration) in Costa Rica, but often they consist of a monoculture of a fast-growing, exotic species such as Gmelina arborea (Gmelina), Eucalyptus deglupta (Eucalyptus), or Tectona grandis (Teak). While these and other exotic species can produce revenue, they have come under scrutiny as leading to general ecosystem decline, decreased sustainability, lowered water tables, and increased pesticide use (Leopold et al.). Additionally, Leopold et al. suggest that these plantations require a high degree of technical maintenance, therefore often excluding local residents from reaping full economic benefits of wood product sales. On a positive note, plantations have been shown to help “jumpstart” natural succession by altering the microclimate (Leopold et al.).

Leopold et al. studied the effects of planting mixed stands of native hardwood species as a means of restoring wet tropical forests in southwestern Costa Rica. The results were encouraging: partial canopy closure three years after planting, 90% survival after five years, and growth rates of 1.2 to 3.1 m/year. All this occurred on degraded old pastureland and showed that some of the sun-loving native species grew at the same rates (3.0 m/year) as exotics such as Gmelina arborea.

Mixed native stands can help nurture biodiversity by creating a diverse plant community that utilizes soil resources more evenly and reduces insect infestation by increasing spacing between vulnerable trees (Leopold et al.). Furthermore, native stands, which tend to produce a higher quality wood, require less technical management than monocultures and will allow more local farmers to become involved in restoration.

References:

Leopold, A. Carl, R. Andrus, A. Finkeldey, and D. Knowles, 2001. Attempting restoration of wet tropical forests in Costa Rica. For. Ecol. Manage. 142, pp. 243-249.

Wijdeven, S.M.J. and M.E. Kuzee, 2000. Seed Availability as a Limiting Factor in Forest Recovery Processes in Costa Rica. Restoration Ecology. 8, pp. 414-424.

Zimmerman, J.K., J.B. Pascarella, and T.M. Aide, 2000. Barriers to Forest Regeneration in an Abandoned Pasture in Puerto Rico. Restoration Ecology. 8, pp. 350-360.

Payments for Environmental Services - Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA)

Subhrendu K. Pattanayak

Extensive and rapid deforestation in Costa Rica from 1950s to early 1990s was viewed as a socially undesirable outcome because of the associated loss of environmental services (e.g. air purification, oxygen and soil supply, nutrient cycling, watershed functions, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, weather moderation, wildlife habitat, aesthetic beauty, recreation) as well as goods (e.g. timber, fuelwood, drinking and irrigation water, fodder, vines, leaves, food, and medicinal and genetic resources). Planners and policy strategist blamed the problem partly on insufficient incentives arising from the fact that environmental services are primarily quasi-public goods. That is, forest owners and managers would deforest in apparent disregard of environmental services because these services either occurred offsite and or imposed opportunity costs in excess of immediate local benefits. This logic led to a pioneering nation-wide system of payments - Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) - in 1997 to induce landowners to provide environmental services. With help from multilateral aid agencies, Costa Rica’s natural resource managers brokered contracts between international and domestic ‘buyers’ and local ‘sellers’ of sequestered carbon, biodiversity, watershed services, and ecotourism.

PSA – enshrined in Forestry Law No. 7575 – leveraged an existing institutional structure of payments for reforestation and forest managements. Two notable changes included (a) payments for environmental services rather than support for the timber industry per se, and (b) financing by earmarked taxes and payments from buyer via a newly created National Fund for Forest Financing (FONAFIFO) instead of government subsidies. Four services considered under PSA are: (a) mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions; (b) provision of water for in-house use, irrigation, and hydroelectricity; (c) conservation of biodiversity; and (d) provision of scenic beauty for ecotourism and recreation. Suppliers of services are primarily titled landowners, who present a management plan certified by a licensed forester. Buyers include ordinary Costa Ricans paying via a gas tax (for carbon, biodiversity, water, aesthetics); the Office of Joint Implementation (carbon); the Global Environmental Fund (biodiversity); and domestic hydroelectric producers (watershed services). The main intermediaries include (a) FONAFIFO, who collects and manages payments from the buyers, and (b)FUNDECOR (Fundacion para el Desarrollo de la Cordillera) and SINAC (Sistemas Nacional de Areas de Conservacion), who contracts, pays and monitors the sellers.

By about mid-2000, over 200,000 ha of forests had been incorporated into PSA at a cost of about US$47 million, with pending applications covering an additional 800,000 hectares. About 82.5% of the contracts have been for forest conservation, with 10.2% for sustainable management and 7% for reforestation. Typical payments have ranged from $35-$40 / ha for forest conservation to about $538 / ha (over 5 years) for reforestation. The bulk of the financing has been obtained by allocating one-third of the gas-tax revenues, with watershed services constituting only about 1% of the payments (in ha). Additionally, PSA has been supported by a loan from the World Bank’s Ecomarket project ($32.6 million) and grants from GEF ($8 million).

In the future, PSA must ensure that the paid services are (a) ‘additional’ - not something landowners would have generated anyway or because of the perverse incentives of clearing forest to earn reforestation credits; (b) efficient – matching true opportunity costs with actual benefits through targeting; (c) sustainable – buying and selling through renewable contracts over the long run; and (d) equitable – not concentrated in the hands of a few large landowners.

References

Chomitz, K., E. Brenes, and L. Constantino, 1999. “Financing Environmental Services: The Costa Rican Experience and its Implications”. Science of the Total Environment 240: 157-169.

Fondo Nacional de Financiemento Forestal (FONAFIFO), 2000. El Desarollo del Sistemas de Pago de Servicios Ambientales en Costa Rica. San Jose : FONAFIFO.

Pagiola, S. (forthcoming). Paying for Watershed Services in Central America: Learning from Costa Rica. In S. Pagiola, J. Bishop and N. Landell-Mills (eds), Selling Forest Environmental Services: Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development. London: Earthscan.

Monteverde

Prepared by Sally Thorpe

The 25,000-acre Monteverde cloud forest area is located on a low mountain in central Costa Rica near the small town of Santa Elena. This community was founded by Quakers in 1951 and is now a popular and interesting destination for both local and international visitors. It is the closest settlement to the Monteverde cloud reserve but the road leading from the town's center to the reserve is clustered with attractions including the butterfly garden, the serpentarium, a cheese factory, a and a number of art galleries.

The Santa Elena and Monteverde cloud forests straddle the continental divide at 4662ft. Acclaimed as one of the most outstanding wildlife refuges in the New World Tropics, more than 100 species of mammals including 5 species of cats are found. There are also over 400 species of birds, tens of thousands of insect species, and 2,500 plant species. Note that a "cloud forest" differs from a "rain forest". A cloud forest will generally receive less rain on an annual basis than a rain forest. However, a cloud forest generally has more humidity and (because of its higher altitudes) more cloudiness than a rain forest. The Monteverde area is considerably cooler and wetter than most areas of Costa Rica . The area has an average temperature of 65F. to 70 F. with an average annual rainfall of 120 inches a year.

The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is a private non-profit reserve (not a national park) administered by the Tropical Science Center. It was founded in 1972 as a unique biological reserve which protects the entire ridge top above Monteverde and extends far down into the Peñas Blancas Valley. There are 6 distinct ecological zones in this reserve. The Monteverde Reserve has a number of walking trails that vary in length and degree of difficulty. The recently-opened Sky Walk, a series of suspension bridges that criss-cross the top of the jungle, leaves you walking on clouds, while the juiced up Canopy Tour whizzes you across the canopy of the jungle in a series of flying foxes. The Aerial Adventure offers a view of the tree tops via a ski-lift.

BIOPROSPECTING and

Prepared by Brian Rosenfeld

Costa Rica is well known for its biodiversity, having four per cent of the world's species in a disproportionately small percentage of landmass. To preserve this biodiversity, a National Park System (SINAC) was begun 30 years ago. In October 1989 the non-governmental organization INBio was established to take a systematic bioinventory. It was assigned the task to produce knowledge on the country’s biodiversity and to contribute to the rational and sustainable use of it.

The concept and practice of "bioprospecting", in which INBio has been a pioneer, refer to the systematic search of new sources of chemical compounds, genes, proteins, microorganisms and other products that have potential economic value and can be found in our natural biological resources. In practice, this process involves location, detailed description and collection of species that, because of their wide distribution and abundance, are not in danger of genetic erosion.

The first bioprospecting deal was signed between INBio and Merck & Co. Under the two-year, US $1.135 million contract, INBio agreed to supply Merck's drug screening program with plant and insect extracts. A number of other contracts have since been signed with Bristol Myers Squibb, Givaudan Roure and British Technology Group. Some of the funds received from these contracts have been paid to SINAC under a formula whereby SINAC provides access to biodiversity within National Parks for 10 % of each research budget. To date, INBio has not paid private forest owners to provide access for bio-prospecting companies to their forests. As a result, the total net value of INBio's bioprospecting activities is about US$1 million per year. INBio also pays 50 per cent of any royalties it receives on any commercial sales to the National Parks. The bioprospecting industry is thriving financially compared to alternative values of the land. In 1993, Costa Rica's forestry industry generated US$28 million, while tourism generated US$421 million. While INBio has achieved international recognition for its work it has come under heavy criticism from some quarters for selling off the countries natural resources.

Coffee in Costa Rica

Prepared by Jacek Siry

The bean with a buzz has gone a long way since the 9th century when, as one legend has it, an Ethiopian herder noticed that his goats acted with much more purpose after they had dined on wild red berries. He tried the berries himself, and since then coffee drinking has become our preferred approach to stay alert. Today, world coffee consumption is booming, with Americans leading the charge. Coffee is the second most widely traded commodity on the world market after oil, as well as the second largest source of Third World export earnings. Coffee growing sustains the livelihoods of 25 million people.

Coffee is cultivated in a tropical belt along the equator. The superior quality Arabica coffee grows in the highlands and accounts for 75% of harvest and nearly all of Latin America's production. The harsher quality Robusta coffee is cultivated in the lowlands. Higher yields and resistance to diseases make Robusta cheaper, paving its way to many grocery blends. The coffee shrub begins to produce high quality beans about 5 years after planting and continues doing so for about 20 years. Before being exported, coffee undergoes processing to separate the bean from the skin and the pulp of the cherry. The end product is called green coffee, which is traded in 60 kg (132 lb) bags. The top producing countries are Brazil, Colombia, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The largest importers are the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. In 2000, the total production equaled nearly 113 million bags, 80% of which was exported.

Until the 1970s, coffee was grown primarily as a shade crop. To meet increasing demand for coffee, the growers have employed new practices, such as converting their plantations from shaded, forested farms to sun farms with no overstory vegetation. While producing larger harvests, the sun farms require increased use of pesticides and fertilizers. Such conversion has resulted in the loss of thousands of acres of migratory birds habitat and accelerated tropical deforestation in Central and South America and in Vietnam.

Last year, coffee prices dropped to their lowest level in 30 years or about 15 to 45 cents/lb. Coffee farmers are broke and walking away from their land. In Central America, 600,000 workers have lost their jobs and regional economies are under stress. The collapse in prices was a direct response to the recent rapid growth in production brought by technical innovations, new plantations, and market liberalization that decreased the ability to regulate coffee stocks. There has been a massive increase in Robusta production in Vietnam, assisted by improved roasting technology that produces better tasting coffee from lower quality beans, as well as an increase in coffee production by other major suppliers, such as Brazil.

While wholesale prices paid to producers reached the record lows, the prices paid by consumers remained relatively stable. Many of the producers are venting their frustration with the United States because prices to consumers have not gone down. Why? Because consumers do not like fluctuating coffee prices. As recently as 1987, Congress held hearings in which coffee executives were asked to explain price swings. Further, not even 15% of $55 billion paid annually by consumers goes to the coffee growers. For now, most efforts to help coffee farmers are focused on specialty coffees--higher priced beans. Despite these efforts, some farmers will go out of business while others will learn to plant and harvest less.

Concerns over the environmental consequences of intensive coffee growing and the well being of the growers have given raise to "concern coffees." Bird lovers want you to buy shade-grown coffee to protect disappearing rain forests used by migratory songbirds. Want to support impoverished Third World coffee growers? Buy Fair-Trade coffee that guarantees farmers a minimum price. Concerned about water and soil quality? Buy organic coffee grown without synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. These coffees are collectively known as sustainable coffees and are certified by groups such as the Rainforest Alliance, the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, and several organizations that monitor organic farming. The sustainable coffee market, while growing, has a relatively small segment (~10% volume) of the overall U.S. coffee market.

In Costa Rica coffee is grown primarily around the capital San Jose. Costa Rica has about 100,000 ha of coffee plantations (~250,000 ac), which are tended by 50,000 farmers. The crop of about 2.6 million bags is processed by 95 coffee mills. Nearly 90% of coffee harvest is exported, generating about 15% of the country's export earnings. Costa Rica is committed to the production of high quality beans, and only Arabica coffee can be planted. The most famous coffee brands are Tarrazu, Tres Rios, Heredia, and Alajuela--full bodied and sweet, with a hearty richness and lively acidity. While Costa Rica has only about a 2% share in the international coffee trade, it supplies about a third of sustainable coffees.

Andrew Whittier

Four Native Tree Species To Costa Rica

Reforestation practices commonly rely on planting species, which have either high wood value and or impressive growth rates. Often time’s trees are planted based on these characteristics with little emphasis placed on different environments. There is a growing trend in studying and planting native species and developing new uses for there wood. One of the major goals of reforestation is for industrial uses. Species that have been studied and proven they are primarily the only trees planted. This leads to forests with few species of exotic trees. In 1985 the Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), in conjunction with Dirección General Forestal (DGF) chose 14 species of trees native to Costa Rica to study.

One native species chosen was Hyeronima alchorneoides Euphoribaceae, commonly called Pilón. Hyeronima alchorneoides ranges from Belize to Peru in low-density forests. It is a tall yellowish tree with large buttresses with roots visible up to 30 m above ground. Primarily Hyeronima alchorneoides is found at forest edges and within clearings. Its dense red wood is used in bridgework and construction. The oils from the seeds are sometimes used as antihelminthic.

Vochysia uatemalensis Vochysiaceae, chancho, is a secondary forest species native to Costa Rica. It is found from Mexico to Panama in humid forests, often in monospecific stands. Vochysia uatemalensis occurs from sea level to 1000 m. Chancho is a tall tree, 30 – 55 m, with no buttress and no basal branches. Chancho wood is strong yet lightweight and is used in carpentry, interior construction, and canoes. Due to its fibrous quality it has potential for pulp used in making paper.

Another tree considered for reforestation is Cordia alliodora Boraginaceae, Laurel. It is a shade intolerant tree that grows from Mexico to Argentina. This tree is often planted along with understory shade tolerant crops such as coffee, Laurel wood is similar in appearance to teak and mahogany which results and high value for the wood. One concern concerning Cordia alliodora is it’s invasive nature and should therefore probably not be used outside of its native habitat.

Calophyllum brasiliense Clusiaceae, Cedro Mariá is found from southern Mexico to northern South America as a canopy tree in humid tropical forests from sea level up to 1500 m. Calophyllum brasiliense grows well on sloped sites with alluvial or clayey soils. It is a tall tree (4 m) with no buttress and branches lacking on the bottom 2/3’s of tree. Its thick bark contains yellow latex with medicinal properties. This attractive heavy wood is used in indoor construction as well as outdoors due to the fact its durable quality is able to withstand water and soil. The fibers can be used in pulp uses while.

These are just a few trees native to Costa Rica with many varied uses that are being studied and considered for reforestation. Research into their needs and growing habits could lead to more fruitful plantations with indigenous species. Another benefit of studying native species is for their possible uses in the medical industry.

The Demography of Costa Rica. Prepared by Anthony Snider.

Fertility Transition – Costa Rica (CR) is the third most densely populated country in Central and South America (behind El Salvador and Guatemala). CR experienced a four-fold population increase in less than two generations following WWII (from 800,000 to > 3 million), then underwent one of the fastest fertility transitions in the developing world. Total fertility rate (TFR) fell from 7.7 births per woman to 5.5 between 1960 and 1968. National family planning was launched in 1968 (promoting health, not population control). TFR further declined to 3.7 in 1976, stalled until 1986, then began declining again and reached 3.2 in 1993. Fertility decline in CR in the 1960s and 1970s can be attributed to adoption of contraception as opposed to other potential influences such as delayed marriage, postpartum abstinence, breastfeeding, or abortion.. Oral contraception was introduced in 1962. Contraceptive use rose from 16% in 1960, wavered between 65-70% from 1976 to 1986, and rose to 75% in 1993. Desired family size remained constant from 1960 to 1986 among women <35 years old. The number of women who wanted <3 children increased from 28% to 34% between 1986 and 1993. Of women <35 years old, 40% wanted <3 children by 1993. The fertility shift following 1986 responded to this change in desired family size. While CR experienced economic and educational advances concurrent with the fertility transition, studies indicate that these changes played a limited role in the transition. Social interaction (contagion diffusion) proved to be the strongest influence on adoption of contraceptive use. Socio-economic factors were usually related to men’s interest in enjoying a better life by having fewer children. Women from the cohort responsible for the fertility transition cited (1) sex education and access to contraception, (2) health, and (3) gender relations as the major considerations influencing their decisions. Having baby-sat siblings was listed as a chief motivation for wanting smaller families. The most important source of contraceptive information for these women was interaction with friends and relatives, with health providers being second. More recently, women have been seeking contraception information through formal education and from their mothers.

Regional Differences and Migration– The central upland region of CR contains the more developed areas, is agriculturally dominated by small family farms, and espouses more traditionally Spanish views. Coastal areas are less economically developed, have more cultural influences, and exhibit more plantation based agriculture.

Rural desired family size in CR was higher than urban desired family size in both 1976 (3.2 vs. 2.7 children) and in 1985 (3.1 vs. 2.3). Of the seven provinces in CR, the lowland provinces (Guanacaste, Puntarenas, and Limon) have historically had higher fertility and higher infant mortality than the central plateau provinces (San José, Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia). These differentials were narrowed by the 1980s. There are three major migration streams in CR: frontier (moving into sparsely occupied, usually forested regions), banana (following plantation based work opportunities), and urban (for economic opportunity and services). In the past, frontier migration was the strongest stream. Urban migration is currently the primary stream and nearly 50% of CR population now lives in urban areas (71.4% of urban population lives in San José). CR had strong economic growth from the 1960s to 1981, when it underwent recession. “Real wages fell by 26%, unemployment more than doubled and the number of families living below the poverty line increased by 50% to almost one million (in 1983)” (Locher 1997, p. 678). CR orchestrated an 80% devaluation of its currency. These conditions prompted a resurgence in frontier migration. Much of this migration involved speculative land clearing (professional squatters clearing land and selling it as improved before moving on to repeat the process). The current extent of frontier migration is unclear since do not have level of data found in 1984 census. “Numerically speaking, frontier migration may well have been the dominant form of migration in this century, and the State’s role and complicity in its promotion is beyond doubt” (Locher 1997, p. 687).

Effect on Deforestation – In 1942 CR legalized squatting, even allowing squatters to take private land and compensating the original owner out of public lands. This policy was supported by the squatters (who preferred cleared land), the original owners (who were thereby allowed to increase their holdings through property value differentials), and the government (as a cheap way to extend agriculture). Much of the land thus converted was either abandoned or put in pasture. While the mechanism by which population pressure influences deforestation has not been specifically demonstrated, the two events show clear association. At issue is whether populations are fleeing denser areas and destroying forestland as they enter it, or whether speculative improvements and improvements in infrastructure provide an impetus for frontier migration. The implied question is how much deforestation would have occurred without population increase. Studies have found deforestation occurring in areas with little or no apparent population pressure and it is often noted that very few people can cause great deforestation. While the actual mechanism at work may be in question, the association between population increase indicates that they are related, whether frontier migrants are performing the clearing themselves or speculators are responding to a perceived unmet demand for cleared land.

Works Cited

Locher, Uli. 1997. Migration and environmental change in Costa Rica since 1950. Demographic Diversity and Change in the Central American Isthmus. A. R. Peeley and L. Rosero-Bixby. Santa Monica, CA, Rand: 667-705.

Other references available on request.

Land use change in Guanacaste

Duncan Quinn

Once covered with tropical dry forests, the Guanacaste region has experienced tremendous changes in land use over the last 500 years. Prior to 1500 AD, the region was inhabited solely by indigenous peoples that lived in small, widely scattered settlements adjacent to water sources, according to the archeological record. These populations were predominately itinerant farmers.

With the arrival of the Spaniards in the region in 1502, more intensive agricultural practices became the norm. Land was initially partitioned into three categories based on agricultural use: caballerías (croplands), estancias (cattle ranches), and sitios (rangelands). Later, these holdings grew more permanent and evolved into the traditional haciendas. Other farms managed by the church were subdivided into small lots where corn, cotton, cacao, and plantains were grown. The rapid influx of new agricultural techniques and equipment facilitated an equally rapid clearing of the native tropical dry forests of the region. Some of the trees cleared to make way for expanding agricultural interests were used as timber or charcoal, but due to a lack of a transportation infrastructure, most of the felled trees were left to rot at the edge of fields.

Growth in exports of beef, lard, leather, and cheese to other Central American areas fueled additional conversion of forests to rangeland up through 1800. Many haciendas that were settled near the Tempisque River to be close to a water source now benefited from the river as a means of transportation to markets.

From about 1820-1950, land use changed little, as cattle ranching remained the dominant industry with crop production maintaining a lesser, but still important role. However, during the first half of the 20^th century, many bottomland tree species became important ones in the timber trade with some species fetching top dollar; thus furthering deforestation.

The period of 1950-1980 was marked by an initial boom in the cattle industry as economic, financial, and transportation infrastructures were vastly improved and beef exports were bound for North American markets. However, in the 1980s the cattle industry began to collapse as beef demand leveled off and a national economic crisis and high inflation rates took hold. Meanwhile, rice production peaked early, too, as protectionist trade policies, transportation subsidies, US technical and financial aid, and increased irrigation helped to make the crop a profitable commodity. It also then fell off as a result of the economic troubles and negative climate factors. Sugar cane production experienced a similar boom then bust cycle.

Since securing adequate water resources became one of the most pressing problems in the region, the Costa Rican government commissioned a massive irrigation project in the 1980s for part of Guanacaste using the outflow from the hydroelectric plant at Lake Arenal. While this has allowed agriculture to flourish once again in the region, the irrigation project has significantly altered the hydrology and flooding regime of the area, particularly affecting wetlands.

Today, the land of Guanacaste is a mosaic of wetlands, intensely developed agricultural land, abandoned pasturelands in various stages of natural succession, and scattered protected tracts of the only primary tropical dry forests remaining in Costa Rica. Just 50 years ago, 50% of the original primary tropical dry forests of Guanacaste stood tall. Today, very little is left. In fact, only 2% of all Central American tropical dry forests still exist. Of this, only a mere 0.08% of the total is protected, most of which is lies within the 20 nationally or 9 privately protected areas of Guanacaste.

A comprehensive management plan has been developed to address the many land-use issues facing the region. The primary goals include: preservation of ecological integrity, reduction of losses associated with flooding, support of sustainable economic benefits of agriculture, fisheries, and ecotourism, and local community involvement.

Guanacaste Land Use Change (Duncan Quinn)

1956 Land Use 1992 Land Use

Legend:

GREEN=tropical dry forest; PURPLE=wetlands; RED=cropland; RED STRIPE= rangeland; YELLOW=rangeland w/trees

Sources:

http://www.ots.ac.cr/en/paloverde/tempisq.pdf

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/success/tour4.htm

http://www.conservationgis.org/ctsp/fdnneotrop/fdnneotrop.html

Private and Public Reserves of Costa Rica

Prepared by Nevin Dawson

One of the many factors that set Costa Rica apart from other Central American countries is its large network of both private and public reserves. These reserves attempt to preserve the vast biodiversity present in tropical regions while allowing public non-destructive use of the protected land.

The National System of Conservation Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservación -- SINAC) is the Costa Rica system of about 150 publicly owned protected areas. SINAC is a division of the Ministry of Environment and Energy (Ministerio del Ambiente y Energía -- MINAE). Protected areas are divided into 11 conservation zones that roughly correspond to geophysical regions (see Figure). The division of the country into zones promotes decentralization and participatory management. These objectives are part of a mid-80’s reformation that began with the merger of three types of protected areas, National Parks, Forest, and Wildlife, into what is now SINAC. The decentralization also spread out the administration from San Jose to each of the 11 regions, which created a more dynamic and flexible infrastructure. SINAC is responsible for the sustainable development of natural resources within the reserves through restorative and protective management, carrying out this management according to the desires of stakeholders (from local to international), and fostering public awareness of environmental issues inside and outside of the reserves.

The Network of Private Reserves (Red de Reservas Privadas) is a group begun in 1995 of about 110 private landowners who have pledged to keep their land forested. Many of these reserves are ecotourism attractions or biological research stations, while some are just kept for the sake of the forest. Some are strategically placed to act as corridors between larger publicly owned reserves. The network administration helps landowners with the paperwork involved in getting government environmental services payments, and also works with the government as a watchdog for the program. The network assists landowners in attaining property rights to land that has been in the family but is not properly registered. The network also acts as a support group that members can turn to when they need expertise to face a problem (red tape, gold miners, poachers, fishers, squatters) with their reserve. Individuals or families own about half of all private reserves in the Neotropics, while a mix of NGOs and businesses owns the other half.

The partnership of these two reserve systems forms a powerful conservation network that is a suitable model for many other countries, and is only one of many reasons that Costa Rica is a leader in natural resource conservation.

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/programs/cmc/newsletter/nov01-3.html

http://www.eco-index.org/search/results.cfm?ProjectID=192

http://www.acguanacaste.ac.cr/1997/principaling.html

http://www.inbio.ac.cr/en/biod/Minae_Sinac.html

http://www.sinac.go.cr/

Bill Shroyer

The Costa Rican salutation of 'pura vida', pure life, describes the area.

Central Valley: San Jose, Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago

Cosmopolitan San José lies to an altitude of 3.770 feet above sea level. Daytime temperatures average between 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit with a rainy season that lasts from May to October. During the rainy season, showers fall primarily during the afternoon hours and produce refreshing breezes. San José is the central nervous system of the country. Government, finance and economic sectors all maintain headquarters in San José. San José is home to nearly a third of Costa Rica's population.

Museums, the National Theater, and elegant cathedral are waiting to be explored. Below the Plaza of Culture lies the impressive Gold Museum. The Plaza's museum complex also houses a collection of contemporary art exhibits. The Gold Museum houses an impressive collection of pre - Columbian gold objects . With an altitude of 11.260 feet Irazú Volcano, just 35 miles from the capital, towers eight thousand feet above the Central Valley. Although often Irazú's fumarolic activity cannot be seen because of clouds, a strong sulfur smell permeates the air. A yellow - green lake fills the volcano's large, principal crater, and is surrounded by jagged cliffs of sulfur - streaked lava. Just above the park's visitor area, the road forks and continues to the very summit of the volcano, from which, on a clear day, both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans can be seen. No less impressive is the 8.871 foot Poás Volcano, less than an hour's drive from San José. The road to the top winds through fertile hillsides planted with terraced rows of dark - green coffee bushes which look, from a distance, like a patchwork quilt.

Northern Mountains: Monteverde, Arenal Volcano, La Fortuna, Rincon de la Vieja

Misty cloud forest environments, verdant rolling hills. A striking characteristic of this area is the dramatic contrast in topography. The Cordilleras, or ranges, of Tilarán and Guanacaste set off the beauty of the Guatuso, San Carlos and Tortuguero Plains. Several small and medium-sized rivers that range throughout the plains make the region very fertile. Fruit trees, rice paddies and cattle ranching are practiced by the residents. Of the 850 bird species identified in Costa Rica, 600 are permanent residents in this region.

Lake Arenal: Winds have been clocked at up to 40 miles per hour. These gales account for the sleek, aerodynamic windmills maybe spotted on slopes high above the lake.

Arenal Volcano: It rises 1,633 meters above sea level and casts an almost flawless silhouette on the land below it. Arenal's last explosion was in 1969 but this volcano is far from dormant. Its constant rumblings are Arenal's most popular characteristics. Often spewing ash and smoke, the volcano provides a striking backdrop for photographs and video.

La Fortuna: A quaint picturesque town and is an ideal place to stop when driving to Arenal Volcano. Fortuna offers many small hotels and restaurants that offer typical Costa Rican fare.

The town square is an ideal place to sit and practice your Spanish since many locals gather here to exchange news of the day's events.

Tilarán: The small, picturesque town of Tilarán lies on the southwestern tip of Lake Arenal and offers a variety of hotel and restaurant options. The Arenal area is great for bird watching. Kingfishers, hawks, and swallowtailed kites are commonly sighted, as well as smaller winged residents such as tanagers and hummingbirds. The roads winding through the area are in good condition with impressive landscapes.

Central Pacific: Jaco, Punta Leona

The Pacific Coast ranges over 500 miles from its northernmost tip to its border with neighboring Panama. This vast extension holds countless beaches and picturesque towns and villages. There are also several protected areas and national parks in the region.

Puntarenas is the largest town on the coast and served for years as one of the country's main ports. Today Puerto Caldera is the primary location for both cargo vessels and cruise lines.

The seafood found in area restaurants is varied and as fresh as it gets.

Jaco: This small seaside town is casual and laid-back but bustling when it comes to good hotels, restaurants and tour operators. You'll find accommodations for every budget, as well as excellent eateries.

Punta Leona: Spanning 300 hectares of a transitional life zone. Punta Leona holds both dry and wet forest environments. A buffer zone of secondary forest and pasture fields protects stunning primary forest. The trees tower well above the forest floor. Balsa trees loom above philodendrons and ferns. The forest trails are varied and great for birding. Although a hotel operates on the property, visitors not staying there can access the park by paying an entrance fee. For this fee, not only will you be able to hit the trails, you'll have access to some of the hotel facilities.

Forest Type Profiles

Prepared by Mary Beth Plummer

Lowland Wet Forest

Welfia georgii – A very common palm, greater than 70 per hectare.

Ochroma lagopus – Balsa is an abundant tree, up to 100 feet tall, produces light

softwood familiar to model airplane builders. Balsa is pioneer species and grows rapidly

in newly cleared patches.

Pentaclethra macroloba – A legume that is the most common tree in some forests, up to

100 feet it often makes up a large percentage of the canopy, the fruit resembles green

beans.

Piper/Candela – understory shrubs with more than 90 species represented in Costa Rica,

erect candle-like flowers pollinated by bats.

Psychotria – genus of a very common understory shrub, in the coffee family, most

species have small white flowers.

Heliconia/Plantanillo – occurs up to elevations of 6500 feet, large banana – like leaves with red, orange, or yellow lobster claw flowers.

Lowland Dry Forest

Bursera simaruba – Gumbo Limbo Tree with smooth red/orange bark.

Acrocomia vinifera – palm tree with spines on the lower trunk, called the Warree Palm, occurs in swampy areas, along roadsides, in old fields and neglected pactures.

Enterolobium cyclocarpum – Ear Fruit is a legume tree with a large spreading crown, often left standing in pastures.

Swietenia macrophyllla – Mahogany, a large tree up to 145 feet high and 6 feet wide, source of fine furniture, found few and far between in dry forests.

Highland and Cloud Forest

Treeferns – very large ferns that attain the heights of trees, up to 65 feet tall

Erythrina – coffee plants do well in shade. Plantations are often layered with coffee plants as the understory and a canopy of Erythrina trees that bloom red or purple flowers.

Drimys winteri – Silvery appearance with large, leathery oval leaves that are yellow green on top and waxy white underneath. It has clusters of little white flowers and the fruits are dark purple berries.

Carbon Sequestration in Costa Rica – Certified Tradable Offsets (CTOs)

Subhrendu K. Pattanayak

In recent years, Costa Rica has been one of the frontrunners in the international efforts to use forestry as a means to mitigate the build-up of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere and alleviate the corresponding potential for harmful global climate change. As Murray (2002) points out, in addition to targeting reductions of GHG emissions from fossil fuel combustion, global mitigation efforts include the sequestration of atmospheric CO₂, the most critical GHG, into terrestrial carbon (C) stocks, often referred to as the creation of a C “sink”. Roughly one-half of the global C in the Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems is found in forest vegetation and soils. Carbon exchange between forests and the atmosphere occur when a forest ecosystem transforms atmospheric CO₂ into forest C stock components (trees, roots, other vegetation, litter, and soils) through photosynthesis. Intact forests store C, but may ultimately release it through natural or anthropogenic disturbances. About one-third of all CO₂ emissions since 1850 are a result of land use activities, predominately forest-clearing, and about one-quarter of CO₂ emissions have been absorbed back into terrestrial ecosystems such as forests (Watson et al., 2000). Forest conservation thus has the potential to both cure (by sequestering CO2) and prevent (by stopping GHG emissions associated with deforestation and subsequent landuse) the global climate change problem. Confronted with widespread and rapid deforestation through the 1980s, Costa Rica was one of the first countries to seize upon the idea of using forests to sequester carbon and to establish market-based incentives and institutions to accomplish these goals.

Costa Rican calls its carbon commodity a Certified Tradable Offset (CTO), which is a pre-approved and transferable guarantee (by MINAE – Environment Ministry) of carbon sequestration for 5 – 20 years. In theory, sellers who create offsets are paid by buyers via a Costa Rican government intermediary. The legal basis for offsetting GHG emissions in this manner lies in (a) the Framework Convention on Global Climate Change in 1992, which called for joint implementation (JI) by rich and poor countries, and (b) the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which allowed for forest C sequestration under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Costa Rica creates and markets CTOs through three large umbrella projects. First and foremost, The Private Forestry Project creates CTOs through direct payments for carbon sequestration – one of the four PSA discussed in a previous note. The rationale for payments lies in the fact that forest owners will not consider carbon fluxes in managing their forestlands because carbon is a public good. That is, beneficiaries of sequestered carbon are multiple and dispersed (you and me sitting in far off countries), whereas the costs are local and private (in terms of pasture and agricultural activities given up). Second, Costa Rica will create CTOs through the Protected Areas Project (PAP) by adding lands to the nation’s protected area system. Finally, energy-related activities such as electric vehicles, wind power etc. can also reduce GHG emissions and generate offsets. CTO sellers include titled landowners, who would provide a management plan, certified by a licensed forester, to OCIC (Office for Joint Implementation) or FONAFIFO to sequester carbon in exchange for a payments. CTO buyers would be willing to pay to offset GHG emissions because either they have to meet some target for GHG reductions (e.g. energy companies in the U.S.) or they want to reduce societal emissions (e.g. altruistic governments). In either case, they are willing to buy CTOs because the costs of reducing GHG emissions in their home environment are typically high, at least relative to the costs through sequestration by forest landowners in Costa Rica.

Till date, the Norwegian government has been the primary buyer of $2 million worth of forestry CTOs, purchasing 200,000 CTOs at $10 each via a national carbon tax and contributions from Consorcio Nuergo. CTOs are also on sale at the Chicago Board of Trade via the Center for Financial Products, Ltd., a company involved in the sale of permits for sulfur oxides (Sox). Additionally, the Japanese (via the World Bank), Swiss, and Finnish governments have financially supported private sector investments in CTOs. The Dutch government has been involved in two new types of CTOs – (a) biogas use and anaerobic treatment of organic wastes from coffee processing, and (b) sustainable banana reforestation.

Future challenges to Costa Rica’s experiment with CTOs include (a) finding more buyers; (b) meeting JI and CDM criteria of ‘additionality’ – i.e, not carbon that landowners would have sequestered anyway, (c) preventing ‘leakage’ – because someone else in Costa Rica cuts down trees and releases GHGs because they are displaced or market conditions improve returns to pasture or agriculture; (d) mitigating performance risks – insufficient regeneration, illegal deforestation, natural disasters; (e) unbundling carbon, watershed, aesthetics, and biodiversity services to raise revenues for each; and (f) meeting equity requirements by spreading payments among small and large landowners, without compromising the match between the sizes of the payments and the associated service benefits. Third party monitoring, verification, and certification could help address some of these challenges.

Additional Reading

Castro, R., F. Tattenbach, L. Gamez, and N. Olson, 2000. “The Costa Rican Experience with Market Instruments to Mitigate Climate Change and Conserve Biodiversity”. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 61: 75-92.

Chomitz, K., E. Brenes, and L. Constantino, 1999. “Financing Environmental Services: The Costa Rican Experience and its Implications”. Science of the Total Environment 240: 157-169.

Murray, B. C. (forthcoming). “Carbon Sequestration: A Jointly Produced Forest Output.” In E. Sills and K. Abt (eds.) Forests in a Market Economy, Kluwer.

Ortiz, E., and J. Kellenberg, 2002. “Program of Payments for Ecological Services in Costa Rica”. Escuela de Ingenieria Forestal. Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica.

PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES OF COSTA RICA

Prepared by Kirsten Collings

There are four public universities in Costa Rica: Universidad de Costa Rica (University of Costa Rica), InstitutoTecnológico de Costa Rica (The Technological Institute of Costa Rica), Universidad Nacional (National University), and the State Correspondence University.

The University of Costa Rica, located in the capital city of San José, is the largest of the public universities with around 35,000 students. Its mission is to enable graduates to contribute to Costa Rica’s societal development and community change. There are a multitude of majors offered at this university, including business administration, anthropology, art, education, physics, statistics, and economics. They have 33 centers and institutes of research, with many programs that would be of interest to our study group. Their research centers focus on interdisciplinary studies and list programs such as Ocean and Limnological Sciences, Sustainable Development, Environmental Pollution, and Food Technology. Their research institutes contribute to scientific advancement and have programs such as Agriculture, Pharmaceuticals, Health, and Engineering. The University of Costa Rica runs two experimental stations (one in Alajuela and one Cartago) and a number of experimental farms located in Heredia, Alajuela, Guanacaste, San José, Cartago, and Puntarenas.

The National University (UNA) has approximately 13,000 students and is located in Heredia. UNA was created in 1973 to focus on development processes and societal needs in Costa Rica. They offer majors in such fields as science, technology, the arts, health sciences, education, humanities, and social sciences. UNA’s School of Environmental Sciences and School of Agricultural Sciences are working on research projects such as the ecology and management of vegetation in high elevation Costa Rican mountains, and organic agriculture with emphasis in organic fertilizers at their experimental farm in Santa Lucía, respectively. The School of Environmental Sciences also has the Program of Physical and Chemical Environmental Pollution Research, and the Regional Program of Wildlife Management.

The Technological Institute of Costa Rica (ITCR or TEC), created in 1971, focuses mainly on science and technology and many students leave with degrees in engineering, computers, business administration, and architecture. TEC seeks to train students for agriculture, mining, and industry. TEC has about 7,500 students and is located in Cartago, approximately 26 km southeast of San José. They have quite a few research centers, including the centers of Environmental Protection, Agro-industrial Management, and Sustainable Agriculture.

The State Correspondence University has 32 regional centers and is designed after the United Kingdom’s Open University. They offer 15 degree courses in the fields of health, education, business administration, and the liberal arts. This university has had a lot of success in the rural populations of Costa Rica.