1	Improving Reading Comprehension Using Metacognitive Strategies
2	IRCMS Reading Strategies Prediction Connections Monitor Summarization Imagery Infer Self-Assess
3	Outcomes:
4	Good Readers are . . . Very Strategic Highly Metacognitive Are Motivated
5	Metacognition Popular definition is “thinking about thinking” It is actually a more complex construct that involves knowledge of one’s cognition and the ability to regulate one’s cognitive processes While cognitive processes are necessary to carry out a task metacognitive process are necessary to understand how the task was performed
6	Teaching metacognitive skills pays off: Delclos & Harrington (1991) showed that 5th and 6th grade students who had self-monitoring training AND problem solving training performed better than groups with just problem solving training or no training. Monitoring training involved simple prompts for the students to consider before, during, and after problem solving.
7	Teaching metacognitive skills pays off: Desoete, et al., (2003) showed that 3rd graders could benefit from metacognitive strategy instruction (with a focus on prediction) on mathematical problem solving after only five 50 minute sessions. Effects remained over comparisons condition 6 weeks later.
8	Teaching metacognitive skills pays off: Reading studies involving elementary school students that have used an explicit approach to teaching metacognitive strategies have consistently found performance gains on reading comprehension. One of the key factors of these studies was the distributed nature of practice over time!
9	What the experts say:
10	What the experts say:
11	You are co-researchers in this program This is a unique attempt to involve this many classrooms (approx. 50) in the same reading program The degree to which this program succeeds hinges upon your creativity, enthusiasm, and consistency in teaching the targeted strategies I want you to share methods/activities that you find works particularly well so that we can share them and improve the program
12	Teaching comprehension:
13	"Teachers frequently assess comprehension but..." Teachers frequently assess comprehension but rarely teach students how to comprehend. Findings by Durkin (1978-79) and followed up by Pressley, et al. (1996)
14	Don’t worry, I am not going to telling you that . . . You are not good reading teachers The methods you are using now are not effective What I am offering should replace what you are doing now
15	Instead I am saying that . . . I have some tried and true strategies that have been shown to increase reading comprehension and performance in other areas The activities in this program will augment what you already do
16	Information Processing Model
17	Sensory Memory A memory buffer holding sensory input Function: Gather information from the environment Capacity: large Duration: short Getting it in: sensation Iconic Memory (visual) ~0.5 seconds (video camera) - Echoic Memory (auditory) ~ 2 seconds (tape recorder)
18	Two important implications: Teachers should recognize capacity limitations and rate of decay of new information so as not to overload students Teachers should cue students to focus their selective attention to what is most important
19	Selective Attention
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24	Working Memory
25	Working memory Rehearsal–retaining information in WM
26	Working Memory & Reading If decoding is not automatic (highly effortful) then decoding competes with comprehension for limited text processing capacity (7 + or - 2).
27	2 Ways to “Beat the Bottleneck” Background knowledge and experience--automaticity Organizational strategies--mnemonics, chunking
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29	Automaticity
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31	Long Term Memory Similar to a hard-drive on a computer Function: hold information (the file cabinet) Capacity: large (unlimited?) Duration: long Saving Information: Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal—encoding Increasing the odds of saving it: Time in WM Number of times it enters WM Meaningfulness --i.e. more connections
32	Knowledge Types Declarative Knowledge – “knowing that” 1. Episodic – autobiographical memory, what you have personally experienced in your life. “Movie reel” in your head 2. Semantic – general world knowledge includes vocabulary, language, relating concepts and idea to one another. Procedural Knowledge– “knowing how” – eg. Riding a bike
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34	Schemata
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37	Saturday night
38	Tony Tony slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong but he thought he could break it. He knew, however, that his timing would have to be perfect. Tony was aware that it was because of his early roughness that he had been penalized so severely--much too severely from his point of view. The situation was becoming frustrating; the pressure had been grinding on him for too long. He was being ridden unmercifully. Tony was getting angry now. He felt he was ready to make his move. He knew that his success or failure would depend on what he did in the next few seconds.
39	Hocked gems With the hocked gems financing him, our hero bravely defied all scornful laughter that tried to prevent his scheme. Your eyes deceive, he had said. An egg, not a table, correctly typifies this unexplored planet. Now three sturdy sisters sought proof. Forging along, sometimes through calm vastness, yet more often through turbulent peaks and valleys, days became weeks as the many doubters spread fearful rumors about the edge. At last, from nowhere welcome winged creatures appeared, signifying momentous success. (Dooling & Lachman, 1971)
40	A simple procedure Tell me what this procedure is The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to the lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is a part of life.
41	Organizing Information making connections among incoming bits of information. (internal connections) Hierarchies—show progression from broad to specific Sequences/outlines—shows linear progression of information. Matrices—shows relationships between elements Models—unified representation, shows how parts are related Concept maps
42	Elaboration connecting new information to information you already know (background knowledge)-external connections Analogies—recognizing similarities “It’s like…..” Examples / “illustrations” Stories Activating prior knowledge—“what do we already know about….” Special cases– Mnemonics—Generated connections (use when there is no background knowledge)
43	Level of Activity Depth of Processing Finding similarities and differences and generalizing: “How are these alike?” “How are they different?” “What pattern do you see?” Explaining: “Why?” (e.g., “Why do you suppose Mercury is so hot on one side and so cold on the other?”) Providing evidence: “How do you know?” Example: “How do you know that people’s perceptions vary?” Evidence: Some people saw the young woman in the picture, whereas others saw the older woman. Hypothesizing: “What would happen if?” Example: “What would happen if Mercury rotated on its axis as does the Earth?” Hypothesis: The temperature wouldn’t vary so much. It would be very warm on all parts of the planet.
44	Dateline Memory Segment What would Rajan and Tatiana have to say to your students about reading comprehension? Why did I show you that video tape (other than the fact that it’s cool!) Overall idea? Any links to the IRCMS strategies?
45	"Executive processes;" Executive processes; oversees the memory system Is rather late developing Can be improved through direct instruction & modeling Is largely independent of general ability
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47	Examples of Metacognition Knowing how well you are doing on your educational psychology test Predicting how difficult a chemistry project will be Understanding how much you know about former presidents Knowing what information is important to take away from class lecture Knowing how well you understand the directions for how to record on a VCR
48	Examples of Metacognition cont. Choosing one strategy over another when playing a board game Knowing if you have studied enough for the history exam Understanding and utilizing strategies that will make you a better setter in volleyball -- example Knowing when your performance on the trumpet was up to par Knowing which Trivial Pursuit categories you are strong and weak at
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50	Examples of Metacognitive Strategies: Self-Checking Creating a productive physical environment Goal setting and planning Reviewing and organizing information after learning Summarizing during learning Seeking assistance Determining how much information to learn
51	Examples of Metacognitive Strategies: Determining how new information relates to existing knowledge Determining how information will be used Identifying main ideas and important information Predicting Monitoring Reflecting on previous learning
52	A Good Strategy User . . . Has a broad repertoire of strategies Metacognitive knowledge about why, when, and where to use strategies Has a broad knowledge base Ignores distractions Is automatic in the four components described above
53	Teaching Metacognitive Strategy Regulation Model strategies that cut across domains (model how you think about and monitor your performance) Encourage students to transfer strategies (eliminate inert knowledge) Demonstrate why some strategies are better than others Explain when and where a strategy will be used (Spend time explicitly teaching this) Use checklists to help monitor
54	Teaching Metacognitive Strategy Regulation cont. Ask students to look back on their performance and determine what they did well and not so well on Provide students with cues such as SQ4R (survey, question, read, reflect, recite, review) Encourage the use and practice of many different strategies Strategies are most effective when integrated within the curriculum as opposed to being taught as a stand-alone unit
55	Summary Recommendations from the Information Processing Model Overlearn to the point of automaticity Encourage deeper processing Help guide selective attention Remember that meaning drives learning & memory Develop not only knowledge but monitoring ability Strategies rule!
56	Transfer of Learning Occurs when something learned at one time and place is applied in another setting Transferring to another university Schedule time with advisor Knowing how to register for classes Where to find information--library Most difficult challenge for teachers! People often don’t realize the relevance of their prior knowledge in new situations Important to instill a “disposition for transfer” in your students Need to reduce inert knowledge
57	Factors Affecting Transfer Structured practice that promotes automated problem solving increases transfer Meaningful learning leads to greater transfer than rote learning Relate problem-solving skills in one domain to another by the use of analogy. Students should see material as context-free rather than context-bound Give numerous worked-out examples Similarity between two situations increases transfer Transfer is more likely when only a short amount of time has elapsed after students have studied a topic
58	Encouraging Transfer in Reading Explicitly teach when and where to apply strategies Practice applying strategies on a variety of texts
59	3 Important Motivational Variables Self-Efficacy Attributions Goal Orientation
60	Self-Efficacy Judgment of one’s ability to perform a task within a specific domain
61	High Efficacy Learners Engage in challenging tasks Persist when goals are not initially reached They also . . . Expend high effort when faced with challenging tasks Believe they will succeed Control stress and anxiety when goals are not met Believe they are in control of their environment Discard unproductive strategies Perform higher than low-efficacy students of equal ability
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64	Attribution Theory The study of the causal explanations for success and failure Efficacy focuses on confidence for future performance whereas attributional judgments relate to past events 3 primary dimensions of attributional responses: Locus of Control, Stability, and Controllability Student attributions are derived not only from themselves but also are influenced through interactions with teachers, parents, and peers
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69	Implicit Beliefs about Intelligence Learning goals lead to greater persistence, more varied strategy use, appropriate help-seeking and are more likely to have high self-efficacy and attribute success to controllable factors such as effort and strategy use Performance goals lead to attempting easy rather than challenging problems, a defensive attitude regarding ability, and a greater frequency of developing learned helplessness because of fear of failure
70	Social Interaction … is essential to learning. Communities of learners. Vygotsky
71	Zone of Proximal Development
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75	Scaffolding
76	Examples of Instructional Scaffolding
77	Examples of Instructional Scaffolding
78	Examples of Instructional Scaffolding
79	Examples of Instructional Scaffolding
80	Scaffolding & Strategy Instruction Gradually turn control of the strategy use and implementation over to the student--but teacher still present to assist until the strategy is automated and internalized Instruction is criterion-based not time-based or norm-based. Developing a mastery orientation Encourage the use of each strategy across the curriculum to increase transfer and allow the student to see the generality of its application
81	Self-Regulated Learning The ability to control all aspects of one’s learning, from advance planning to how one evaluates performance afterward 3 Core Components Metacognitive awareness Knowledge about cognition/Regulation of cognition Strategy use Selectively choosing then evaluating strategies Motivational control Goals, self-efficacy, effort
82	Comprehension defined . . .
83	Transactional Reading is … construction of meaning from text. It is an active, cognitive, and affective process. Readers actively interact with text Readers view text experiences as being 2-way
84	Reading is social … Communities of learners support literacy development.
85	Engagement in the Reading Task … Is the KEY in successfully learning to read. Children learn successful reading strategies in the context of REAL reading.
86	Characteristics of the most successful reading comprehension programs: Emphasize direction explanation of cognitive strategies Introduce strategies gradually Maintain strategy instruction over an extended period of time Emphasize teacher modeling and think alouds Provide students with skills to make them successful independent readers
87	Characteristics of the most successful reading comprehension programs: Encourage reflection Encourage transfer Maintain student motivation Promotes reading as an active process of meaning making Integrate strategies within and throughout the curriculum
88	Teach Strategies “To show students how is to teach strategies that will serve a lifetime” This is the idea behind developing reflective, highly strategic, metacognitive learners.
89	Metacognitive Readers Readers Low in Metacognitive Abilities: Lack awareness of process Unconsciously incompetent “Don’t know that they don’t know” Readers High in Metacognitive Abilities: Realize there is a problem with reading Don’t know how to fix the problem Consciously incompetent “Know they don’t know, but…”
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91	Prediction Previewing text before reading Make predictions by skimming text and pictures/illustrations Schema activation
92	Making Connections Text-to-Self Text-to-Text Text-to-World Background knowledge is critical to comprehension
93	Monitor Using “fix up” strategies Assessing your understanding and strategy use while reading Questioning oneself periodically Making judgments (confidence) of one’s performance
94	Summarizing Remember to tell what is important Tell it in a way that makes sense Avoid telling too much--students gradually go from retelling to summarizing Focus on main ideas
95	Imagery Create mental images Visualize with picture books Visualize with descriptive text Visualize with fiction and nonfiction texts Create external representations to guide comprehension
96	Infer Infer feelings & themes Infer from illustrations “Read between the lines” Be a detective--look for clues
97	Self-Assess Identify key topics and supporting details Identify questions to answer while reading Determine what questions might be asked on a test Evaluate one’s knowledge -- test oneself
98	Gradually Release Responsibility Vygotskian process: Teacher modeling Guided practice Independent practice Use of strategies in real reading situations
99	Processing Before Reading Good readers have clear reading goals They overview the text with the following goals before reading To determine whether the text is worth reading To identify goal-relevant sections, and To develop a reading plan
100	Processing During Reading Reading general progresses from beginning to end There is differential attention to information relevant to the reader’s goal Good readers sometimes jump forward and backward to find particular information and to clarify confusions that arise during reading. They are aware of such confusions, because they do much monitoring as they read
101	Processing During Reading Good readers anticipate what might be said, updating their predictions and hypotheses as reading proceeds Good readers relate their prior knowledge to the ideas in text and relate ideas in the text to one another. Sometimes old knowledge is revised in light of information in the text. Many inferences are made during reading Good readers sometimes use strategies as they read, for example, to determine the meanings of unknown words or to remember particular ideas
102	Processing During Reading Good readers demonstrate passion for certain ideas presented in the text Good readers construct interpretations and conclusions as reading proceeds
103	Processing During Reading Sometimes there is rereading or reskimming of text just read Good readers sometimes attempt to restate important ideas from the text. If notes might help later recall, they make them Good readers continue to reflect on the text after they have finished reading
104	Processing After Reading: Sometimes there is rereading or reskimming of text just read. Good readers sometimes attempt to restate important ideas from the text. If notes might help later recall, they make them. Good readers continue to reflect on the text after they have finished reading.
105	Reading should be an ACTIVE not Passive activity!
106	In Summary Good Readers are . . . Very Strategic Highly Metacognitive Are Motivated
107	Pre & Post Assessment Gates-MacGinitie Reading Comprehension Test N.C. End-of-Grade Test for Reading Metacomprehension Strategy Index Jr. MAI (Metacognitive Awareness Inventory) Reading Efficacy
108	Assessment During Intervention Performance scores on distributed reading comprehension exercises--standard texts across students Monitoring accuracy scores on distributed reading comprehension exercises--standard texts across students Student reflections of strategy use from strategy portfolio
109	Scaffolded Setting
110	Peer Setting
111	Autonomous Setting
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113	2 Metacognitive Guides Strategy Evaluation Matrix (SEM) -- students will record effective strategies including how to use, when to use, and why to use each Regulatory Checklists (RC) -- students refer to a set of questions each time they read independently to help guide their comprehension reflection
114	A Strategy Evaluation Matrix
115	Regulatory Checklist Before Reading What is my goal? Can I predict what this text is about? During Reading Do I understand what I am reading? Does this text connect with something I already know? Could I explain what I am reading to someone else? After Reading Could I tell someone the main idea of this text? Do I need to reread any of the text?
116	Introducing the Strategies Introduce all of the strategies at once but then go back and revisit them in more detail Create posters/visuals to display in the room--keep a place to add to them during the year Use Artful Expression for visual reps. Keep your own notes/reflections on your personal use of the strategies so that you can share them with your students
117	Possible Uses of Technology Text presented via computer with on-line comprehension assessment Tracking use of strategies using handhelds Creating visual representations of text in Kidspiration Using handheld response units to answer comprehension questions, provide confidence judgments, and to indicate appropriate strategy use.
118	The process of reading comprehension strategy instruction:
119	Treatment Integrity
120	EARTH DAY Our Earth has a special day. It is much like your birthday. Earth Day is celebrated on April 22^nd each year. We celebrate Earth Day to remind us to take care of our Earth. We need to keep our rivers, lakes, and ponds clean for us to have good water to drink. We need to keep trash cleaned up so our world will be beautiful. We can all help to keep our Earth clean. Let’s start by cleaning up the trash in our schools, homes and neighborhoods.
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122	ANSWER THE QUESTIONS: 1. When is Earth Day? a. March 1st b. April 22nd c. April 1st d. May 3rd 2. Why do we celebrate Earth Day? a. to have a big party b. to play outside c. to take care of Earth d. to color pictures
123	MORE QUESTIONS: 3. Why do we need to keep our rivers, lakes and ponds clean? a. to have good food b. to make flowers c. to have water to drink d. to study math 4. Where can we clean up trash? a. in our schools b. in our homes c. in our neighborhoods d. all of these
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125	The Great Kapok Tree by Lynne Cherry In the dense, green Amazon rain forest, a man is chopping down a great Kapok tree. The animals who live among its leaves and branches watch him silently. Hot and weary, the man lies down to rest at the foot of the tree and falls asleep. Then, one by one, the forest creatures emerge to whisper in his ear. They beg him not to destroy their home and tell him how important every tree is in the rain forest.
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127	Teaching Monitoring
128	The Water Cycle The water cycle is an exciting and continuous process. The water cycle is the movement of water in the environment by evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. The warm sun causes water on the Earth to evaporate (to change a liquid into a gas) and rise up into the sky. The water vapors that are formed, cool during evaporation. This is what forms clouds that float in the sky. Clouds can be a mass of water droplets and/or ice particles. When the clouds get heavy enough, the water falls back to the earth. Condensation is the change of a gas, such as water vapors, into a liquid or solid. The water vapors must turn into a liquid or solid before it can fall to the earth. When the water falls back to the earth it is called precipitation. The water may fall as rain, snow, or hail. Plants in our environment also release water vapor into the atmosphere. When plants do this it is called transpiration.
129	"The water cycle is an..."
130	"The water cycle is the..."
131	Visualization
132	"The water vapors that are..."
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134	"Condensation is the change of..."
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136	"When the water falls back..."
137	Inferring